Fermi had shown much earlier that neutrons were far more effectively captured by atoms if they were of low energy (so-called "slow" or "thermal" neutrons), because for quantum reasons it made the atoms look like much larger targets to the neutrons. M Two jacks (G) for the high-voltage (~300 V) input to the electrodes of the electron gun. A nitrogen atom has seven electrons. For example, 238U, the most abundant form of uranium, is fissionable but not fissile: it undergoes induced fission when impacted by an energetic neutron with over 1MeV of kinetic energy. However, some texts group the Lorentz factor with the mass factor to define a new quantity called the relativistic mass, mrelativistic = me. / J.J. Thomsons Cambridge classmate Joseph Larmor used the phrase in this context. Mass of Electrons. Mass/charge ratio is given the symbol m/z (or sometimes m/e). Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The mass-to-charge ratio (m/Q) is a physical quantity relating the mass (quantity of matter) and the electric charge of a given particle, expressed in units of kilograms per coulomb (kg/C). In February 1940 they delivered the FrischPeierls memorandum. (This turned out not to be the case if the fissile isotope was separated.) The positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the electron.It has an electric charge of +1 e, a spin of 1/2 (the same as the electron), and the same mass as an electron.When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs. l Joseph John Thomson died on 30 August 1940; his ashes rest in Westminster Abbey,[19] near the graves of Sir Isaac Newton and his former student, Ernest Rutherford. "Joseph J. Thomson," in The Dictionary of National Biography, 1931-1940. He devised methods to measure the charge to mass ratio of cathode rays. On June 28, 1941, the Office of Scientific Research and Development was formed in the U.S. to mobilize scientific resources and apply the results of research to national defense. The reduced mass of the system in these equations is close to the mass of a single electron, but differs from it by a small amount about equal to the ratio of mass of the electron to the atomic nucleus. Electron mass m e = 9.109 10 31 Kilograms. (2006). Typical fission events release about two hundred million eV (200MeV) of energy, the equivalent of roughly >2 trillion kelvin, for each fission event. The history of the chemical bond. 2 [3][4] Most fissions are binary fissions (producing two charged fragments), but occasionally (2 to 4 times per 1000 events), three positively charged fragments are produced, in a ternary fission. Seeger, Raymond. The rest mass of an electron or mass of an electron can be calculated from fine structure constant() obtained through spectroscopic measurements and Rydberg constant (R). Protons have a positive charge and a mass 1,836 times that of the electron, at 1.6726 10 27 kg. , where is the angular magnetic deflection and H is the applied magnetic field intensity. Mass of Electrons. On the other hand, so-called delayed neutrons emitted as radioactive decay products with half-lives up to several minutes, from fission-daughters, are very important to reactor control, because they give a characteristic "reaction" time for the total nuclear reaction to double in size, if the reaction is run in a "delayed-critical" zone which deliberately relies on these neutrons for a supercritical chain-reaction (one in which each fission cycle yields more neutrons than it absorbs). This extra energy results from the Pauli exclusion principle allowing an extra neutron to occupy the same nuclear orbital as the last neutron in the nucleus, so that the two form a pair. In anywhere from 2 to 4 fissions per 1000 in a nuclear reactor, a process called ternary fission produces three positively charged fragments (plus neutrons) and the smallest of these may range from so small a charge and mass as a proton (Z=1), to as large a fragment as argon (Z=18). H Thus in 1899, Lorentz calculated that the ratio of the electron's mass in In the ground state, they are arranged in the electron configuration 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 x 2p 1 y 2p 1 z.It, therefore, has five valence electrons in the 2s and 2p orbitals, three of which (the p-electrons) are unpaired. In 1912, as part of his exploration into the composition of the streams of positively charged particles then known as canal rays, Thomson and his research assistant F. W. Aston channelled a stream of neon ions through a magnetic and an electric field and measured its deflection by placing a photographic plate in its path. So-called neutron bombs (enhanced radiation weapons) have been constructed which release a larger fraction of their energy as ionizing radiation (specifically, neutrons), but these are all thermonuclear devices which rely on the nuclear fusion stage to produce the extra radiation. This energy release profile holds true for thorium and the various minor actinides as well.[8]. Sensors and Datalogging. The mass of an electron is 1/1837 of a proton. The electron mass (symbol: me) is the mass of a stationary electron, also known as the invariant mass of the electron. \eqref{eqn_6}. Charge to Mass Ratio of an Electron. Formally, a string is a finite, ordered sequence of characters such as letters, digits or spaces. (We use AC.). Thomson also presented a series of six lectures at Yale University in 1904. A current adjustment knob (B) for the HC. See decay heat for detail. Rose Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, a physician and then Regius Professor of Physic at Cambridge at the church of St. Mary the Less, was interested in physics. The kinetic energy of the electrons in this beam is equal to the potential energy difference between the anode and the cathode. [18], Thomson published a number of papers addressing both mathematical and experimental issues of electromagnetism. Chadwick announced his initial findings in: E. Fermi, E. Amaldi, O. The fission of a heavy nucleus requires a total input energy of about 7 to 8 million electron volts (MeV) to initially overcome the nuclear force which holds the nucleus into a spherical or nearly spherical shape, and from there, deform it into a two-lobed ("peanut") shape in which the lobes are able to continue to separate from each other, pushed by their mutual positive charge, in the The amount of free energy contained in nuclear fuel is millions of times the amount of free energy contained in a similar mass of chemical fuel such as gasoline, making nuclear fission a very dense source of energy. The mass of an electron is 9.10938356 10-31 kilograms. Any electron beam would collide with some residual gas atoms within the Crookes tube, thereby ionizing them and producing electrons and ions in the tube (space charge); in previous experiments this space charge electrically screened the externally applied electric field. The result is two fission fragments moving away from each other, at high energy. Plot \(B\) as a function of \(I\). v It is one of the fundamental constants of physics.It has a value of about 9.109 10 31 kilograms or about 5.486 10 4 daltons, which has an energy-equivalent of about 8.187 10 14 joules or about 0.511 MeV. CUSTOMER SERVICE: Change of address (except Japan): 14700 Citicorp Drive, Bldg. First self-published in 1921, Poultry Science is an internationally renowned monthly journal, known as the authoritative source for a broad range of poultry information and high-caliber research. Spontaneous fission was discovered in 1940 by Flyorov, Petrzhak, and Kurchatov[5] in Moscow, in an experiment intended to confirm that, without bombardment by neutrons, the fission rate of uranium was negligible, as predicted by Niels Bohr; it was not negligible.[5]. Required fields are marked *, \(\begin{array}{l}m_{e}=\frac{2R_{\infty }h}{c\alpha ^{2}}\end{array} \). For example, the uncertainty associated with the position and the velocity of an electron is much greater than that associated with a proton or a neutron, as per Heisenbergs uncertainty principle. The concept of natural units was introduced in 1874, when George Johnstone Stoney, noting that electric charge is quantized, derived units of length, time, and mass, now named Stoney units in his honor. However, in nuclear reactors, the fission fragment kinetic energy remains as low-temperature heat, which itself causes little or no ionization. [13], In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget. v A known current flows through a pair of Helmholtz coils and produces a magnetic field. The excess mass The results confirmed that fission was occurring and hinted strongly that it was the isotope uranium 235 in particular that was fissioning. Definition. This quantity me is frame invariant and velocity independent. Electron mass is sometimes termed as rest mass because according to the special theory of relativity, mass of the object is said to vary according to the frame of reference. He had a brother, Frederick Vernon Thomson, who was two years younger than he was. Previous theories allowed various numbers of electrons.[40][41]. Protons are positively charged particles whereas neutrons do not carry any charge. The term "rest mass" is sometimes used because in special relativity the mass of an object can be said to increase in a frame of reference that is moving relative to that object (or if the object is moving in a given frame of reference). When discussing the history of chemistry its always dangerous to point to the specific origin of an idea, since by its very definition, the scientific process relies upon the gradual refinement of ideas that came before. Your TA will remove the EBB. / The trajectory of the speeding electrons moving through the magnetic field is made visible by a small amount of mercury vapor. Ironically, they were still officially considered "enemy aliens" at the time. However, the actual charge and mass values were unknown. The empty string is the special case where the sequence has length zero, so there are no symbols in the string. (You may also need to adjust the filament power to accomplish this.) In the ground state, they are arranged in the electron configuration 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 x 2p 1 y 2p 1 z.It, therefore, has five valence electrons in the 2s and 2p orbitals, three of which (the p-electrons) are unpaired. With this orientation, the effect of the Earth's field on the HC is zero. The electron mass (symbol: m e) is the mass of a stationary electron, also known as the invariant mass of the electron. Connect the EBB to the power supplies and multimeters (see the figure below). Such high energy neutrons are able to fission 238U directly (see thermonuclear weapon for application, where the fast neutrons are supplied by nuclear fusion). Electrons are negatively charged particles with negligible mass. "J. J. Thomson, Anglican," in Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith, 38 (June 1986): 131-132. In a nuclear reactor or nuclear weapon, the overwhelming majority of fission events are induced by bombardment with another particle, a neutron, which is itself produced by prior fission events. Plot \(V\) as a function of \(R^2\) (the data in step 6), and use the slope of the graph to determine the ratio \(e/m\) with the help of Eq. e l The total rest masses of the fission products ( Also because of the short range of the strong binding force, large stable nuclei must contain proportionally more neutrons than do the lightest elements, which are most stable with a 1to1 ratio of protons and neutrons. These negatively charged cathode ray particles are now known as electrons. The pile would use natural uranium as fuel. A few particularly fissile and readily obtainable isotopes (notably 233U, 235U and 239Pu) are called nuclear fuels because they can sustain a chain reaction and can be obtained in large enough quantities to be useful. However, this process cannot happen to a great extent in a nuclear reactor, as too small a fraction of the fission neutrons produced by any type of fission have enough energy to efficiently fission 238U (fission neutrons have a mode energy of 2MeV, but a median of only 0.75MeV, meaning half of them have less than this insufficient energy).[7]. By contrast, most chemical oxidation reactions (such as burning coal or TNT) release at most a few eV per event. Use red cables for positive voltage and black cables for ground. Thomson's son (George Paget Thomson) also won the 1937 Nobel Prize in physics for proving the wave-like properties of electrons. He thus concluded that atoms were divisible, and that the corpuscles were their building blocks. An ion with a mass of 56 and a charge of 2+ would also have a mass/charge ratio of 28. Thus in 1899, Lorentz calculated that the ratio of the electron's mass in the moving frame and that of the aether frame is parallel to the direction of motion, and perpendicular to the direction of motion, where = / and is an undetermined factor. in electron optics and ion optics.. p63: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966, harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFDahl1997 (, J.J. Thomson (1912) "Further experiments on positive rays,", J.J. Thomson (1913) "Rays of positive electricity,", electromagnetic mass of a charged particle, Learn how and when to remove this template message, International Mass Spectrometry Foundation, Institute of Physics Joseph Thomson Medal and Prize, Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society, "Extraordinary Professor: JJ Thomson and his Nobel Prize Factory", "XX. / The electron's equation of motion is given by the Lorentz relation. In 1880, he obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics (Second Wrangler in the Tripos[12] and 2nd Smith's Prize). Hahn suggested a bursting of the nucleus, but he was unsure of what the physical basis for the results were. The unpredictable composition of the products (which vary in a broad probabilistic and somewhat chaotic manner) distinguishes fission from purely quantum tunneling processes such as proton emission, alpha decay, and cluster decay, which give the same products each time. An electronvolt is the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. This is an important effect in all reactors where fast neutrons from the fissile isotope can cause the fission of nearby 238U nuclei, which means that some small part of the 238U is "burned-up" in all nuclear fuels, especially in fast breeder reactors that operate with higher-energy neutrons. [27], Thomson's prize-winning master's work, Treatise on the motion of vortex rings, shows his early interest in atomic structure. Since the electron mass determines a number of observed effects in atomic physics, there are potentially many ways to determine its mass from an experiment, if the values of other physical constants are already considered known. The charge of an electron is equal in magnitude to the charge held by a proton (but has an opposite sign). [14] Thomson received his Master of Arts degree (with Adams Prize) in 1883. For any further queries or more content on this topic register to BYJUS. Towards this, they persuaded German-Jewish refugee Albert Einstein to lend his name to a letter directed to President Franklin Roosevelt. In this expression me is the "rest mass", or more simply just the "mass" of the electron. Nuclear fission of heavy elements was discovered on Monday 19 December 1938, by German chemist Otto Hahn and his assistant Fritz Strassmann in cooperation with Austrian-Swedish physicist Lise Meitner. This article is about the Nobel laureate and physicist. The electron mass is used to calculate[citation needed] the Avogadro constant NA: Hence it is also related to the atomic mass constant mu: where Mu is the molar mass constant (defined in SI) and Ar(e) is a directly measured quantity, the relative atomic mass of the electron. Most nuclear fuels undergo spontaneous fission only very slowly, decaying instead mainly via an alpha-beta decay chain over periods of millennia to eons. 2 The President received the letter on 11October 1939 shortly after World War II began in Europe, but two years before U.S. entry into it. Turn on the heater supply, and allow two minutes for the filament to heat up. Install the Hall-Probe holder in the HC. It is one of the fundamental constants of physics.It has a value of about 9.109 10 31 kilograms or about 5.486 10 4 daltons, which has an energy-equivalent of about 8.187 10 14 joules or about 0.511 MeV. He examined the electromagnetic theory of light of James Clerk Maxwell, introduced the concept of electromagnetic mass of a charged particle, and demonstrated that a moving charged body would apparently increase in mass. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS)[1][42] and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge in 1884. Among the heavy actinide elements, however, those isotopes that have an odd number of neutrons (such as 235U with 143 neutrons) bind an extra neutron with an additional 1 to 2MeV of energy over an isotope of the same element with an even number of neutrons (such as 238U with 146 neutrons). The mass of the electron is negligible compared to the mass of the proton. In wartime Germany, failure to appreciate the qualities of very pure graphite led to reactor designs dependent on heavy water, which in turn was denied the Germans by Allied attacks in Norway, where heavy water was produced. Thomson in 1897 was the first to suggest that one of the fundamental units of the atom was more than 1,000 times smaller than an atom, suggesting the subatomic particle now known as the electron. (2008) used the inversion transition of ammonia to conclude that |/| < 1.8106 at redshift z = 0.68. Six of Thomson's research assistants and junior colleagues (Charles Glover Barkla,[21] Niels Bohr,[22] Max Born,[23] William Henry Bragg, Owen Willans Richardson[24] and Charles Thomson Rees Wilson[1]) won Nobel Prizes in physics, and two (Francis William Aston[25] and Ernest Rutherford[26]) won Nobel prizes in chemistry. Required fields are marked *. Research reactors produce neutrons that are used in various ways, with the heat of fission being treated as an unavoidable waste product. Connect the Simpson multimeter to the jacks labeled for the voltmeter (item E on the front panel of the EBB) set to the highest voltage scale, and put it in the DC-V mode. Electron mass is sometimes termed as rest mass because according to the special theory of relativity, mass of the object is said to vary according to the frame of reference. p. 35. Instead, bombarding 238U with slow neutrons causes it to absorb them (becoming 239U) and decay by beta emission to 239Np which then decays again by the same process to 239Pu; that process is used to manufacture 239Pu in breeder reactors. An electronvolt is the amount of kinetic energy gained or lost by a single electron accelerating from rest through an electric potential difference of one volt in vacuum. The excited atom then decays quickly back to the ground state, emitting several photons in the process (including the one that has the characteristic blue color of mercury light). But Joliot-Curie did not, and in April 1939 his team in Paris, including Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, reported in the journal Nature that the number of neutrons emitted with nuclear fission of uranium was then reported at 3.5 per fission. Stoney chose his units so that G, c, and the electron Rsidence officielle des rois de France, le chteau de Versailles et ses jardins comptent parmi les plus illustres monuments du patrimoine mondial et constituent la plus complte ralisation de lart franais du XVIIe sicle. When \(L \ll r\), the coils produce a nearly uniform magnetic field in the space between them. Among the project's dozens of sites were: Hanford Site in Washington, which had the first industrial-scale nuclear reactors and produced plutonium; Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which was primarily concerned with uranium enrichment; and Los Alamos, in New Mexico, which was the scientific hub for research on bomb development and design. In nuclear reactions, a subatomic particle collides with an atomic nucleus and causes changes to it. The number in parentheses is the measurement uncertainty on the last two digits, corresponding to a relative standard uncertainty of 6.0 10 11. Thompson, therefore, concluded that the cathode rays are 1/1000thmass of hydrogen ion (which is a proton). e = magnitude of the charge of the electron in coulombs = 1.602 10-19 coulombs. Formally, a string is a finite, ordered sequence of characters such as letters, digits or spaces. Fortunately, the ratio of these two fundamental constants can be determined easily and precisely from the radius of curvature of an electron beam traveling in a known magnetic field. Cathode rays were emitted from the cathode C, passed through slits A (the anode) and B (. The fission of a heavy nucleus requires a total input energy of about 7 to 8 million electron volts (MeV) to initially overcome the nuclear force which holds the nucleus into a spherical or nearly spherical shape, and from there, deform it into a two-lobed ("peanut") shape in which the lobes are able to continue to separate from each other, pushed by their mutual positive charge, in , \label{eqn_7} \end{eqnarray}, The direction of the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil, and its unit is the tesla (T), with 1 tesla = 104 gauss. [2] The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that candidates such as Osborne Reynolds or Richard Glazebrook were older and more experienced in laboratory work. In the ground state, they are arranged in the electron configuration 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1 x 2p 1 y 2p 1 z.It, therefore, has five valence electrons in the 2s and 2p orbitals, three of which (the p-electrons) are unpaired. Thus to slow down the secondary neutrons released by the fissioning uranium nuclei, Fermi and Szilard proposed a graphite "moderator", against which the fast, high-energy secondary neutrons would collide, effectively slowing them down. In MayJune 1897, Thomson investigated whether or not the rays could be deflected by an electric field. Select the correct answer and click on the Finish buttonCheck your score and answers at the end of the quiz, Visit BYJUS for all Chemistry related queries and study materials, wow byjus is so good i think it is the best online education platform in world thank byjus for such a helpful app and website to study, Your Mobile number and Email id will not be published. In 1914, he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on "The atomic theory". The concept of natural units was introduced in 1874, when George Johnstone Stoney, noting that electric charge is quantized, derived units of length, time, and mass, now named Stoney units in his honor. By using the definition of Rydberg constant we can write . The fission process often produces gamma photons, and releases a very large amount of energy even by the energetic standards of radioactive decay. Note that mu is defined in terms of Ar(e), and not the other way round, and so the name "electron mass in atomic mass units" for Ar(e) involves a circular definition (at least in terms of practical measurements). Unknown until 1972 (but postulated by Paul Kuroda in 1956[31]), when French physicist Francis Perrin discovered the Oklo Fossil Reactors, it was realized that nature had beaten humans to the punch. (The high purity for carbon is required because many chemical impurities, such as the boron-10 component of natural boron, are very strong neutron absorbers and thus poison the chain reaction and end it prematurely.). The electron's mass is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. We work with educators to develop user-friendly sensors, software, interfaces, and dataloggers that effectively eliminate manual data recording to facilitate quality scientific analysis. . p In the analytical technique of mass spectrometry, atoms or molecules are ionized using a high-energy electron beam and then separated based on their mass-to-charge ratios (m/z).The results are presented as a mass spectrum, which shows the relative abundances of the ions on the y-axis and their m/z ratios on the x-axis. This energy, resulting from the neutron capture, is a result of the attractive nuclear force acting between the neutron and nucleus. The accelerating voltage for the EBB is produced by a Heathkit Regulated Power Supply Model PS-4. Thus, the blue halo in the glass bulb marks the path of the electrons. Electrons are a sort of negative-charged subatomic particle. However, no odd-even effect is observed on fragment mass number distribution. If these delayed neutrons are captured without producing fissions, they produce heat as well.[14]. Connect the power supplies and multimeters to the \(e/m\) apparatus, as detailed in the previous section. On the front panel of the EBB stand, it is stated that \(B\) = (7.8 \(I\)) gauss, but no uncertainty is given. Kanekar et al. Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge.Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwell's equations.Various common phenomena are related to electricity, including lightning, static electricity, electric heating, Rsidence officielle des rois de France, le chteau de Versailles et ses jardins comptent parmi les plus illustres monuments du patrimoine mondial et constituent la plus complte ralisation de lart franais du XVIIe sicle. Nuclear reprocessing aims to recover usable material from spent nuclear fuel to both enable uranium (and thorium) supplies to last longer and to reduce the amount of "waste". Meitner's and Frisch's interpretation of the discovery of Hahn and Strassmann crossed the Atlantic Ocean with Niels Bohr, who was to lecture at Princeton University. J. J. Thomson had already discovered the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron. We work with educators to develop user-friendly sensors, software, interfaces, and dataloggers that effectively eliminate manual data recording to facilitate quality scientific analysis. Charge to Mass Ratio of an Electron. Nuclei are bound by an attractive nuclear force between nucleons, which overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between protons. As noted above, the subgroup of fissionable elements that may be fissioned efficiently with their own fission neutrons (thus potentially causing a nuclear chain reaction in relatively small amounts of the pure material) are termed "fissile". The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. The latter figure means that a nuclear fission explosion or criticality accident emits about 3.5% of its energy as gamma rays, less than 2.5% of its energy as fast neutrons (total of both types of radiation ~6%), and the rest as kinetic energy of fission fragments (this appears almost immediately when the fragments impact surrounding matter, as simple heat). Measuring separately the electric charge (\(e\)) and the rest mass (\(m\)) of an electron is a difficult task because both quantities are extremely small (\(e\) = 1.6021773310-19 coulombs, \(m\) = 9.109389710-31 kilograms). Plot \(I^2\) as a function of \(1/R^2\) (the data in step 7), and use the slope of the graph to determine the ratio \(e/m\) with the help of Eq. He called the particles "corpuscles", but later scientists preferred the name electron which had been suggested by George Johnstone Stoney in 1891, prior to Thomson's actual discovery. See Fission products (by element) for a description of fission products sorted by element. Electron Mass Value. "2018 CODATA Value: electron mass energy equivalent in MeV", National Institute of Standards and Technology, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electron_mass&oldid=1109788719, Pages using Template:Physical constants with rounding, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 11 September 2022, at 21:41. In arithmetic and algebra, the cube of a number n is its third power, that is, the result of multiplying three instances of n together. Peter J. Bowler, Reconciling Science and Religion: The Debate in Early-Twentieth-Century Britain (2014). Isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) is a specialization of mass spectrometry, in which mass spectrometric methods are used to measure the relative abundance of isotopes in a given sample.. I.I. The mass number is a dimensionless quantity. In physics, the proton-to-electron mass ratio, or , is the rest mass of the proton (a baryon found in atoms) divided by that of the electron (a lepton found in atoms), a dimensionless quantity, namely: . One remarkable property is that the effective mass can become the positive-charge, positive-mass quasiparticles that can be found in semiconductors. This extra binding energy is made available as a result of the mechanism of neutron pairing effects. The negative charge is equal to 1.602 10-19 coulomb in magnitude. Turn on the current through the HC, and observe how the electron beam is bent and forms a circle. In fission there is a preference to yield fragments with even proton numbers, which is called the odd-even effect on the fragments' charge distribution. The linear charge density is the ratio of an infinitesimal electric charge dQ (SI unit: C) to an infinitesimal line element, The UK opened the first commercial nuclear power plant in 1956. 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